KANTIANOS SÃO MUITO EMOTIVOS? UMA HIPÓTESE NEUROCIENTÍFICA
Keywords:
Deontologia, Emoções, Ética, Neurociência, UtilitarismoAbstract
Na última década várias estudos empíricos sobre a
moralidade foram publicados, utilizando ressonância magnética
funcional, análises de cérebros lesionados e manipulações
ambientais. A principal hipótese dessas pesquisas é que as intuições
e emoções têm um papel crucial nos juízos morais. Porém, elas não
devem ser entendidas como mecanismos frívolos e puramente
irracionais, mas sim como atalhos mentais lapidados pela seleção
natural quando as situações exigem uma resposta rápida. Uma
previsão dessa hipótese é que grande parte de nossas justificativas
morais na verdade são meras racionalizações de avaliações
inconscientes. Tais pesquisas sugeriram o Modelo do Processo
Duplo, segundo o qual os juízos utilitaristas se baseiam nas áreas
cerebrais mais associadas a planejamento e pensamento abstrato
enquanto que os juízos deontológicos estão mais associados a áreas
ativadas durante respostas intuitivas, de maneira que as pessoas
tendem ao utilitarismo quando a carga emocional é baixa e tendem
à deontologia quando o conteúdo emocional da situação é alto
(Greene, 2008). O presente artigo apresenta esse modelo, as
evidências a seu favor e as críticas feitas ele – em especial aquelas
feitas por (Moll, J. & De Oliveira-Souza, R., 2007). Ao final são
discutidas as implicações que a descoberta dos mecanismos
intuitivos da moralidade pode ter para questões de ética prática e
políticas públicas.
Downloads
References
ADOLPHS, R., BARON-COHEN, S., & TRANEL, D. Impaired recognition of social emotion following amygdala damage. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, v. 14, p. 1264–1274, 2002.
ALLISON, T.; PUCE, A. & MCCARTHY, G. Social perception from visual cues: Role of the STS region. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, vol. 4, p. 267-278, 2000.
ALLMAN, J.; HAKEEM, A. & WATSON, K. Two phylogenetic specializations in the human brain. Neuroscientist, vol. 8, p. 335–346, 2002.
BARON, J. & RITOV, I. Intuitions about penalties and compensation in the context of tort law. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, vol. 7, p. 17–33, 1993.
BARON, J.; GOWDA, R. & KUNREUTHER, H. Attitudes toward managing hazardous waste: What should be cleaned up and who should pay for it? Risk Analysis, vol. 13, n. 2, p. 183-192, 1993.
BIRCHAL, Telma. Joshua Greene e Marc Hauser nas fronteiras da filosofia: a moral das morais evolucionistas. Ethic@, v. 8, p. 89-100, 2009.
BOTVINICK, M. M.; BRAVER, T. S.; BARCH, D. M.; CARTER, C. S., & COHEN, J. D. Conflict monitoring and cognitive control. Psychological Review, vol. 108, p. 624-652, 2001.
CARLSMITH, K. M.; DARLEY, J. M. & ROBINSON, P. H. Why do we punish? Deterrence and just deserts as motives for punishment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 83, p. 284-299, 2002.
CHOMSKY, N. Syntactic structures. The Hague: Mouton, 1957.
DE QUERVAIN, D. J.F.; FISCHBACHER, U.; TREYER, V.; SCHELLHAMMER, M.; SCHNYDER, U.; BUCK, A. & FEHR, E. The neural basis of altruistic punishment. Science, vol. 305, p. 1254–1258, 2004.
ESLINGER, P. J. et al. Developmental consequences of childhood frontal lobe damage. Archives of Neurology, vol. 49, p. 764-769, 1992.
FISCHER, J. M. & RAVIZZA, M. (Orgs.). Ethics: Problems and principles. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers, 1992.
GOEL, V. & DOLAN, R. J. Differential involvement of left prefrontal cortex in inductive and deductive reasoning. Cognition, vol. 93, p. B109–B121, 2004.
GREENE, J. D. The secret joke of Kant's soul In: SINNOTT-ARMSTRONG, Walter (Org.). Moral Psychology (vol. 3) - the neuroscience of morality: emotion, disease, and development. MIT Press, Cambridge, 2008.
GREENE, J. D. Why are VMPFC patients more utilitarian? A dual-process theory of moral judgment explains. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, vol.11, n. 8, p. 322-323, 2007.
GREENE, J. D.; MORELLI, S.A.; LOWENBERG, K.; NYSTROM, L.E. & COHEN, J.D. Cognitive load selectively interferes with utilitarian moral judgment. Cognition, vol. 107, n. 3, p. 1144–54, 2008.
GREENE, J. D.; NYSTROM, L. E.; ENGELL, A. D.; DARLEY, J. M. & COHEN, J. D. The neural bases of cognitive conflict and control in moral judgment. Neuron, vol. 44, p. 389–400, 2004.
GREENE, J. D.; SOMMERVILLE, R. B.; NYSTROM, L. E.; DARLEY, J. M. & COHEN, J. D. An fMRI investigation of emotional engagement in moral judgment. Science, vol. 293, n. 5537, p. 2105-2108, 2001.
HAIDT, J.; KOLLER, S. & DIAS, M. Affect, culture, and morality, or is it wrong to eat your dog? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 65, p. 613 – 628, 1993.
HAUSER, M. Moral minds: How nature designed our universal sense of right and wrong . New York: HarperCollins, 2006.
HUEBNER, B.; DWYER, S. & HAUSER, M. The role of emotion in moral` psychology. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, vol. 13, p. 1-6, 2009.
INBAR, Y.; PIZARRO, D. A.; KNOBE, J. & BLOOM, P. Disgust sensitivity predicts intuitive disapproval of gays. Emotion, vol. 9, p. 435-439, 2009.
KAHANE, G.; WIECH, K.; SHACKEL, N.; FARIAS, M.; SAVULESCU, J. & TRACEY, I. The Neural Basis of Intuitive and Counterintuitive Moral Judgement. Social, Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience: online advanced access, 2011. Disponível em: . Acesso em: 20 de dez. 2011.
KAHNEMAN, D.; SCHKADE, D. & SUNSTEIN, C. R. Shared outrage and erratic rewards: The psychology of punitive damages. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, vol. 16, p. 49-86, 1998.
KANT, Immanuel; QUINTELA, Paulo. Fundamentação da metafísica dos costumes. Lisboa: Edições 70, 1785/1986.
KOECHLIN, E.; BASSO, G.; PIETRINI, P.; PANZER, S. & GRAFMAN, J. The role of the anterior prefrontal cortex in human cognition. Nature, vol. 399, p. 148–151, 1999.
KOECHLIN, E.; ODY, C. & KOUNEIHER, F. The architecture of cognitive control in the human prefrontal cortex. Science, vol. 302, p. 1181–1185, 2003.
KOENIGS, M. & TRANEL, D. Irrational economic decision-making after ventromedial prefrontal damage: evidence from the Ultimatum Game. Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 27, p. 951-956, 2007.
KOENIGS, M.; YOUNG, L.; ADOLPHS, R.; TRANEL, D.; CUSHMAN, F.; HAUSER, M. et al. Damage to the prefrontal cortex increases utilitarian moral judgements. Nature, vol. 446 , p. 908-911, 2007.
KOENIGS, M.; YOUNG, L.; CUSHMAN, F.; ADOLPHS, R.; TRANEL, D.; DAMASIO, A. & HAUSER, M. Damage to the prefrontal cortex increases utilitarian moral judgements. Nature, vol. 446, p. 908–911, 2007.
KOSFELD, Michael; HEINRICHS, Markus; ZAK, Paul J.; FISCHBACHER ,Urs & FEHR, Ernst. Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature, vol. 435, p. 673-676, 2005.
MADDOCK, R. J. The retrosplenial cortex and emotion: New insights from functional neuroimaging of the human brain. Trends in Neuroscience, v. 22, p. 310–316, 1999.
MCCLURE, S. M., LAIBSON, D. I., LOEWENSTEIN, G., & COHEN, J. D. Separate neural systems value immediate and delayed monetary rewards. Science, v. 306, p. 503–507, 2004.
MCMAHAN, Jeff. The ethics of killing: problems at the margins of life. Nova York/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
MENDEZ, M. F. et al. An investigation of moral judgment in frontotemporal dementia. Cognitive and Behavioural Neurology, vol. 18, p. 193-197, 2005.
MIKHAIL, John. Elements of moral cognition: Rawls' Linguistic Analogy and the Cognitive Science of Moral and Legal Judgment. Nova York: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
MIKHAIL, John. Universal moral grammar: theory, evidence, and the future. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, vol. 11, n. 4, p. 143-152, 2007.
MILLER, E. K. & COHEN, J. D. An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annual Review of Neuroscience, vol. 24, p. 167–202, 2001.
MOLL, J. et al. The cognitive neuroscience of moral emotions. In: SINNOTT-ARMSTRONG, Walter (Org.). Moral Psychology (vol. 3) - the neuroscience of morality: emotion, disease, and development. MIT Press, Cambridge, 2008.
MOLL, J.; ZAHN, R.; OLIVEIRA-SOUZA, R.; KRUEGER, F. & GRAFMAN, J.. The neural basis of human moral cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol. 6, p. 799-809, 2005.
MOLL, Jorge & DE OLIVEIRA-SOUZA, R. Moral judgments, emotions and the utilitarian brain. Trends in Cognitive Science, Research Focus, vol. 589, s. p., 2007a.
MOLL, Jorge & DE OLIVEIRA-SOUZA, Ricardo. Response to Greene: Moral sentiments and reason: friends or foes? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, vol.11, n. 8, p. 323-325, 2007b.
MOLL, Jorge et al. Frontopolar and anterior temporal cortex activation in a moral judgment task: preliminary functional MRI results in normal subjects. Arquivos de Neuropsiquiatria, vol. 59, p. 657-664, 2001.
MOLL, Jorge et al. The neural correlates of moral sensitivity: a functional magnetic resonance imaging investigation of basic and moral emotions. Journal of Neuroscience. vol. 22, p. 2730-2736, 2002.
MOLL, Jorge et al. Opinion: the neural basis of human moral cognition. Nature Review Neuroscience, vol. 6, p. 799-809, 2005.
MOLL, Jorge et al. Human fronto-mesolimbic networks guide decisions about charitable donation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 103, p. 15623–15628, 2006.
MOLL, Jorge et al. The self as a moral agent: linking the neural bases of social agency and moral sensitivity. Social Neuroscience, vol. 2, n. 3-4, p. 336-352, 2007.
MOORE, A.B.; CLARK, B.A. & KANE, M. J. Who shalt not kill? Individual differences in working memory capacity, executive control, and moral judgment. Psychological Sciences, vol. 19, p. 549–57, 2008.
PETRINOVICH, L. & O’NEILL, P. Influence of wording and framing effects on moral intuitions. Ethology and Sociobiology, vol. 17, p. 145–171, 1996.
PETRINOVICH, L.; O’NEILL, P. & JORGENSEN, M. An empirical study of moral intuitions: Toward an evolutionary ethics. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 64, n. 3, 1993, p. 467-478.
PRECHT, Richard David. Quem sou eu? E, se sou, quantos sou? Uma aventura na filosofia. Trad. C. Abeling. São Paulo : Ediouro, 2009.
PHAN, K. L.; WAGER, T.; TAYLOR, S. F. & LIBERZON, I. Functional neuroanatomy of emotion: A meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRI. Neuro-Image, v. 16, p. 331–348, 2002.
RAMNANI, N. & OWEN, A. M. Anterior prefrontal cortex: Insights into function from anatomy and neuroimaging. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, v. 5, p. 184–194, 2004.
RAWLS, J. A theory of justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971.
ROLLS, E. T. The orbitofrontal cortex. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 351, p. 1433-1443, 1996.
ROSE, Steven. O cérebro no século XXI. Trad. H. Londres. Rio de Janeiro: Editora Globo, 2005.
SANFEY, A. G.; RILLING, J. K.; ARONSON, J. A.; NYSTROM, L. E. & COHEN, J. D. The neural basis of economic decision - making in the ultimatum game. Science, vol. 300, p. 1755-1758, 2003.
SAXE, R.; CAREY, S. & KANWISHER, N. Understanding other minds: Linking developmental psychology and functional neuroimaging. Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 55, p. 87-124, 2004.
SCHELLING, T. C. The life you save may be your own In: CHASE, S. B. (Org.), Problems in public expenditure analysis. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, p. 127–176, 1968.
SCHNALL, S.; HAIDT, J.; CLORE, G. & JORDAN, A. Disgust as embodied moral judgment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, vol. 34, p. 1096-1109, 2008.
SINGER, P. Famine, affluence and morality. Philosophy & Public Affairs, vol. 1, p. 229–243, 1972.
SINGER, Peter. Practical ethics – 2a ed. Nova York: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
SINGER, Peter. The life you can save: how to do your part to end world poverty. New York: Random House, 2010.
SMALL, D. A. & LOEWENSTEIN, G. Helping a victim or helping the victim. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, vol. 26, p. 5–16, 2003.
SMALL, D. A. & LOEWENSTEIN, G. The devil you know: The effects of identifiability on punitiveness. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, vol. 18, p. 311–318, 2005.
STRUCHINER, Noel. No Empathy Towards Empathy: Making the Case for Autistic Decision-Making. Inédito.
VALDESOLO, P. & DESTENO, D. Manipulations of emotional context shape moral judgment. Psychological Science, vol. 17, p. 476–477, 2006.
WEINER, B.; GRAHAM, S. & REYNA, C. An attributional examination of retributive versus utilitarian philosophies of punishment. Social Justice Research, vol. 10, p. 431-452, 1997.
WHEATLEY, T. & HAIDT, J. Hypnotic disgust makes moral judgments more severe. Psychological Science, vol. 16, p. 780-784, 2005.
YOUNG, L.; CAMPRODON, HAUSER, M; PASCUAL-LEONE, A. & SAXE, R. Disruption of the right temporoparietal junction with transcranial magnetic stimulation reduces the role of beliefs in moral judgments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 107, p. 6753–6758, 2010.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
Português (Brasil)
English
Español (España)
Français (Canada)
